In this section, we discuss several aspects of related work, including background and conventional technologies.
Globally, the number of people with diabetes is expected to rise from the current estimate of 150 millions to 220 millions in 2010 and 300 millions in 2025. The prevalence is increasing in the developing countries such as India, particularly in urban areas. The estimated number of diabetes patients in India was 19.4 million in 1995 and are expected to be 57.2 million in 2025 (W.H.O). In the United States, it is estimated that as of 2002, 18.2 million people (6.3% of the total population) were diabetic. About 2.06 lakhs of people under 20 years of age have diabetes (0.25% of all people in this age group). Approximately one in every 400-500 children and adolescents has Type-I diabetes. In the age group of 20 years or older, 18 million (8.7% in men and 9.3% in women) have diabetes. In people above the age of 60 years, 8.6 million (18.3% of all people in this age group) have diabetes.
There are mainly two types of diabetes. Type-I diabetes which was previously called insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or juvenile-onset diabetes. This develops when the body's immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells (β-cells), which are the only cells in the body that make the hormone insulin that regulates blood glucose level. The pancreas comprises two glandular tissues, one, is a collection of cells that form the exocrine function of the pancreas where these exocrine cells synthesize and release digestive enzymes into the intestine; the second tissue comprises the endocrine function of the pancreas which synthesize and release hormones into the circulation. Of prime importance for the endocrine function of the pancreas are the beta cells. These cells synthesize and secrete the hormone insulin. The hormone insulin plays a vital role in maintaining normal physiological glycemic levels. There are molecules that are effectors of the endocrine cells of the pancreas. Glucoincretins are an example of such molecules. Incretins potentiate glucose-induced insulin secretion from the pancreas. In Type-I diabetes there is decreased insulin production and the circulating insulin level is very low. Type-I diabetes usually strikes children and young adults, although the disease onset can occur at any age. It accounts for 5-10% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes. Risk factors for Type-I diabetes may include autoimmune, genetic, and environmental factors.
Type-II diabetes was previously called non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or adult onset diabetes. It usually begins as insulin resistance, a disorder in which the cells of the body fails to respond to insulin properly. As the need for insulin rises, the pancreas gradually loses its ability to produce insulin. Beta cells of pancreatic islets are dysfunctional. Type-II diabetes is associated with older age group, obesity, family history of diabetes, history of gestational diabetes, impaired glucose metabolism, physical inactivity, and race/ethnicity. In recent years, Type-II diabetes is increasingly being diagnosed in children and adolescents. Type II diabetes is the predominant form of diabetes world wide, accounting for 90% of cases globally. An epidemic of Type II diabetic patients is underway in both developed and developing countries, although the brunt of the disorder is felt disproportionally in non-European populations, especially in India.
Type II diabetes has become one of the world's most important public health problems. It is currently thought to occur in genetically predisposed individuals, who are exposed to a series of environmental influences that precipitate the onset of clinical disease. Sex, age and ethnic background are important factors in determining the risk for the development of Type II diabetes. The disorder is more common in the females.
Age is also an important factor. Type II diabetes has been viewed in the past as a disorder of aging with an increasing prevalence with age. This remains true today. However, a disturbing trend has become apparent in which the prevalence of obesity and type II diabetes in children is rising dramatically. In the past, it was believed that the overwhelming majority of children with diabetes had type I diabetes, with only 1-2% children considered to have type II or other rare forms of diabetes. Recent reports suggest that as many as 8-45% of children with newly diagnosed diabetes have non-immune-mediated-diabetes. The majority of these children have type II diabetes, but other types are also being identified. Normal insulin secretory function is essential for the maintenance of normal glucose tolerance, and abnormal insulin secretion is invariably present in patients with type II diabetes.
Gestational diabetes is a form of glucose intolerance that is diagnosed in some women during pregnancy. It is more common among obese women and women with a family history of diabetes. During pregnancy, gestational diabetes requires treatment to normalize maternal glucose level in order to avoid complications in the infant. After pregnancy, 5-10% of women with gestational diabetes are found to have type-II diabetes. Women who have had gestational diabetes have a 20% to 50% chance of developing diabetes in the next 5-10 years.
Other specific types-of diabetes result from specific genetic conditions (such as maturity onset diabetes of youth), surgery, drug-induced, malnutrition, infections, and other illnesses. Such types account for 1-5% of all diagnosed cases of diabetes.
Type-I diabetic patients have virtually no functional β-cells, can neither respond to variations in circulating glucose nor maintain a basal secretion of insulin, and the treatment principle is to achieve blood glucose concentration as close to normal as possible to reduce the risk of diabetic complications. Previous proposals for treatment include application of exogenous bioactive Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide (“GLP-1”) or its analogs, to either stimulate islet cell regeneration in vivo, or to obtain pancreatic cells from diabetes mellitus patients and to treat such cells ex vivo in tissue culture using bioactive GLP-1. This ex vivo treatment was considered to facilitate regeneration and/or differentiation of Islet cells which could then synthesis and secrete insulin or glucagon.
However, such a treatment regime requires the enteral or parenteral application of bioactive GLP-1 to patients, including the possibility of surgery. It is one aspect to obviate the need for surgical treatment, enteral or parenteral applications of bioactive GLP-1.
There are two types of treatments depending on the patient's condition. Intensive therapy—with insulin administration by insulin pump or 3-4 or more daily injections with a goal to achieve blood glucose levels between 70-120 mg/dl before meals, less than 180 mg/dl after meals and weekly 3 AM measurement greater than 65 mg/dl and HbA1C (glycosylated haemoglobin) value within the normal range (6.05% or less).
Conventional therapy consists of one or two daily injection of insulin including mixed intermediate and rapid acting insulins daily, with self monitoring of urine and blood glucose. Intensive therapy gives good glycemic control and decreases the risk of retinopathy by 47%, microalbuminuria by 34%, while secondary intervention causes 43% protection.
According to the American Diabetes Association's revised guidelines for 2002, the goal of therapy is to achieve average prepandial plasma glucose concentration in the range of 90-130 mg/dl, average bedtime plasma glucose values between 110-150 mg/dl and HbA1C values less than 7%.
In Type II diabetic patients, beta cells (β-cells) of the Islets of Langerhans are intact, but dysfunctional. They are not secreting enough insulin needed, there is also insulin resistance and the cells do not respond to insulin. The major predisposing factor is obesity. Hence treatment is initiated with dietary changes and exercise and if the patient does not improve, drugs are prescribed. The revolution in the treatment of Type II diabetes since 1995 has been the release of multiple new classes of drugs that independently address different pathophysiological mechanisms that contribute to the development of diabetes.
The available oral anti-diabetic drugs can be divided by their mechanism of action as shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1Orally administered anti-diabetic drugs.ApprovedMechanismClassDrugsOf actionLimitationsSulphonylureas2 (2nd gen)Act on pancreaticInsulin(Insulin secretagogues)4 (1st gen)β Cells to releaseresistanceinsulinBiguanidesonly onedecrease glucoselactic acidosis(Insulin sensitizers)(Metformin)release by liverimproves insulinsensitivitydiminish insulinfluid retentionweight gainThiazolidinedionesonly oneresistance &hypoglycemia,(Insulin sensitizers)(Glitazones)improve insulincannot be usedsensitivityin presence ofheart & liverdisease∝Glucosidase2 (Acarbose,slow theflatulence,inhibitorsMiglitol)absorption ofdiarrhoea,carbohydratesabdominal pain
Even though a variety of modern drugs are available for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, as in above table none of them are without side effects. Insulin even though very potent, remains the drug of choice for Type-I diabetics and also for type-II diabetics who do not obtain glycemic control with oral anti-diabetic drugs. The main disadvantage of insulin is that it is not orally effective because it is destroyed upon oral administration, and hence has to be given by injection.